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Salvation Army: A Biblical Basis for
Military Metaphor in Restricted Access Countries
by Jason Pope
Missiological Integrative Research Paper
Submitted to - Dr. David Cashin, August 14, 2006
Let the words of my mouth and the
meditations of my heart be acceptable in thy sight oh Lord my
rock and my redeemer. (Psalms 19:14)
This study will add to the current ongoing
research regarding The Salvation Army’s role in world
evangelism. The Salvation Army currently operates in 111
countries. Many of the countries The Salvation Army does not
currently operate in are restricted-access countries. Some
are communist countries, and others are strict Muslim
countries.
The research was done while Israel was in the
process of engaging in war in the country of Lebanon. At the
same time, the United States had soldiers in Iraq, pursuing a
conflict that many Muslims claim is an extension of the
Crusades. The research also took into account a statement put
out by the participants in the U.S. Consultation on Mission
Language and Metaphors School of World Mission, Fuller
Theological Seminary. Below is an excerpt of this statement:
We regret that certain words and images long
employed to call the church to mission have increasingly
caused offense to the very people with whom we are seeking to
share the Good News. Some of these words and images are
biblical; some are motivational tools from the secular arena
that we use to inspire involvement and action. Many are
military in nature: "target," "conquer," "army," "crusade,"
"mobilize," "beachhead," "advance," "enemy," "battle." We may
know what such terms mean to us, but what do they mean to
others? (U.S. Consultation on Mission Language and Metaphors
School of World Mission)
“Salvationists”, members of The Salvation Army
church, are engaged in a controversy over whether their use of
military terminology in the Christian arena is merely
metaphorical or whether it represents a real war. Some
Salvationists find their military metaphor incongruent with
their methodology of care (Robinson 2006, 38). Other
Salvationists find the term “metaphor” offensive, as they feel
that they are engaged in a spiritual war which encompasses all
of life. One such Salvationist, Anthony Castle, says, “You
see, when one assumes that TSA is a metaphor, one perceives
its identity, cause and methods as figurative, immaterial and
like any descriptive device open to alteration. If we are a
metaphorical army in a metaphorical war, then we are not
really an army and this is not really a war” (Castle 2006,
11).
Castle goes on to point out that prostitutes,
drug dealers and children of broken homes served by The
Salvation Army in the ghettos of North America don’t care
whether the Army uses military metaphor in describing itself.
To him it seems a waste of time to even debate this topic
(Castle 2006, 12). But there are millions of Muslims across
the un-reached world and millions in poverty in closed-access
communist countries who would find this topic very relevant.
The research for this paper sought to examine
how The Salvation Army might need to adapt or maintain its use
of military metaphor in restricted-access countries. For the
sake of this work, the researcher assumed the first Salvation
Army doctrine which states that “the scriptures of the Old and
New Testaments were given by inspiration of God and that they
only constitute the Divine rule of Christian faith and
practice” to be true (Salvation Army 2000 Year Book 1999,
18). Thus the paper will examine biblical texts from the New
Testament which use military metaphor in light of historical
and contemporary situations in restricted-access countries. A
biblical basis for the effective use of military metaphor in
restricted-access countries will be established.
The paper will be broken into two sections.
The first section will establish principles for the
organization. It will begin with an examination of The
Salvation Army’s use of military metaphor and then draw
principles from Philippians 1:27-31 and John 4 for The
Salvation Army as an organization to use in restricted-access
countries. The second section of the paper will focus on
principles for Salvationist missionaries who serve in
restricted-access countries. In this section, three
texts—Luke 22:35-38, selected parts of Revelation and
Ephesians 6:10-17—will be examined and principles for these
missionaries will be given.
This paper will assume that The Salvation Army
has a calling to spread the whole gospel to the whole earth.
This paper will further assume that absolute truth is found in
Jesus Christ. This truth found in Him is the only way to
salvation. Finally, the paper will assume that Christians
should be respectful of cultural norms and people when
presenting the gospel.
It is this final assumption that might make
parts of this paper difficult for Salvationist to read. In
some cases, critics of the early Salvationists or Christians
will be cited in order to examine how The Salvation Army might
be more effective in restricted-access countries. This in no
way negates the important, powerful impact that these leaders
had in the past and the legacy they continue to have. Space
does not permit balancing these stories with the plethora of
stories which illustrate the positive impacts made by these
Salvationists.
Biblical Principles for The Salvation Army
in Restricted-Access Countries
An Introduction to the Use of Military
Metaphor in The Salvation Army
As cited in Origins of the Salvation Army,
originally named “The Christian Mission,” the organization was
re-christened “The Salvation Army” by founder Reverend William
Booth in 1879. When William Booth changed the name of the
Christian Mission to The Salvation Army, he did so following
the example of Queen Victoria’s imperial army (Murdoch 1994,
88). He did this mainly in order to establish more autocratic
control. Booth felt that having a central plan was the only
way to accomplish the Army’s mission (105). He ordered The
Salvation Army’s command structure to appear similar to the
popular imperial army in England at the time. He used this
change in structure to capture absolute control of the
movement (97). He abolished local committees’ power of
assigning their own evangelists and began naming them himself
(91). He changed councils, which were used to debate, to “war
councils,” where people would get spiritually recharged (90).
He also used this change to make amendments to the deed poll
and put all of the organization’s property in his own name
(98-100).
But it was impossible for the metaphor to
affect only The Salvation Army’s decision-making process. Dan
Stiver says metaphors organize one’s whole view of a
particular subject in relation to another (Stiver 1998,
115-116). This can lead to metaphors extending beyond their
original intent. Richard Beaton states when metaphors are
extended they run the risk of being “distorted” and “may lead
to some unfortunate conditions” (Beaton 2001, 60).
Stiver states that IA Richards, in an essay
titled “The Philosophy of Rhetoric,” made the case that
metaphors were unique in their ability to communicate
something which could not be communicated in any other way (Stiver
1998, 114-115). Max Black, who published “Metaphor” in the
fifties, described metaphor as being more than just a
description of reality. He believed that metaphors have the
power to actually create a new reality (Stiver 1998, 114).
Stiver says metaphors do their work by creating “semantic
shock.” When a metaphor has been used widely, it loses its
semantic shock and begins to become more literal (130, 131).
Stiver goes on to say, “Philosophically speaking, what is
important about metaphor is that it can do more than
embellish; it can direct us to what we have never seen before”
(130-131).
Science has used metaphors to explain one
phenomenon in terms of another. For instance, light has been
described as a wave, which is not literally true. Yet it led
to greater understanding and more possibilities to be tested (Stiver
1998, 119). Paul Tillich said that for symbols to truly fit,
they must “not be completely intentional” but rather must
“rise from [the] subconscious” of that organization. He went
on to say the “life span [of metaphors] is dependent on their
climate” (Stiver 1998, 122-127).
This was the case with Booth’s Army. Perhaps
his description of the movement in terms of an army led to a
greater understanding of the movement itself and more
possibilities for the movement than had been discovered up
until that point in 1879. The Army seemed to be struggling in
accomplishing its mission and the results of the new metaphor
became a catalyst for growth (Murdoch 1994, 122-124). Since
the movement is now over 120 years old, these terms may have
become commonplace to those in countries The Salvation Army
has been working in for years. Thus, the metaphoric language
which was originally translated figuratively might have become
more literal through use and time in countries where The
Salvation Army has worked for quite some time—especially for
Salvationists themselves. In the minds of these people, this
would create a real army the likes of which the world had
never seen. Yet for restricted-access countries, this
language would remain new and the metaphor would be translated
in reference to their experiences.
Philippians 1:27-31
Only let your
manner of life be worthy of the gospel of Christ, so that
whether I come and see you or am absent, I may hear of you
that you stand firm in one spirit, with one mind striving side
by side for the faith of the gospel, and not frightened in
anything by your opponents. This is a clear omen to them of
their destruction, but of your salvation, and that from God.
For it has been granted to you that for the sake of Christ you
should not only believe in him but also suffer for his sake,
engaged in the same conflict which you saw and now hear to be
mine.
(Philippians 1:27-31)
Edgar Krentz points out in “Military Metaphors
in Philippians” that by comparing this passage to its
contemporary texts, a very significant military influence
emerges. The dialogue in this passage is very similar to that
which a commander would use to address his army before a
battle ( Krentz 1993, 127).
In ancient warfare, wars were decided in one
battle. Each side would arrange itself in a single line. If
one side was able to break through the other’s line, the whole
war could be won. Thus, soldiers were taught to face the
spear without moving out of the way. They had to “stand fast”
though they may not have had the physical means to overcome
the enemy. Krentz states “Battles were won or lost on the
basis of unity of mind, purpose and action” (122).
Euripides said, “The test of a man’s courage is
‘to stand and look and outface the spear’s swift stroke,
keeping the line firm’” (Krentz 1993, 124). In the New
Testament times, there was one great deterrent to this unity:
fear. Krentz says, “Fear is the great enemy of unity of
purpose in war. Where fear stalks the troops, there is danger
of sudden turning tail and running. Commanders, therefore,
deal with fear whenever they detect it—and rapidly” (124).
The commanders in ancient warfare would fight
right alongside their troops. It would be against the norm
for soldiers to outfight their commander. When a commander
was absent, it would make a noticeable psychological impact on
the troops. The author described Paul’s situation as the
commander who was gone away from the troops (119).
For The Salvation Army, this passage can be
applied to mean there must be unity internationally among
Salvationists. They are partners in mission. Neither the
Salvationists in restricted-access countries nor the
Salvationists in other countries should disconnect themselves
from the other. This shows the importance of encouragement
for Salvationists from the leadership command of The Salvation
Army. Otherwise these groups in restricted-access countries
could fall into the trap of isolation. But in order to remain
courageous and unified, they need to stay connected.
Salvationists the world over will also need to remain
mobilized in prayer for each other.
John 4
Our fathers worshiped on this mountain; and
you say that in Jerusalem is the place where men ought to
worship." Jesus said to her, "Woman, believe me, the hour is
coming when neither on this mountain nor in Jerusalem will you
worship the Father. You worship what you do not know; we
worship what we know, for salvation is from the Jews. But the
hour is coming, and now is, when the true worshipers will
worship the Father in spirit and truth, for such the Father
seeks to worship him. God is spirit, and those who worship him
must worship in spirit and truth." (John 4:20-24)
There are many critics of Christianity today on
the basis of the Crusades and colonization. One such critic,
Musa Dube, says, “Imperialism as an ideology of expansion
involves superior travelers who represent the superiority of
their origin” (Dube 2004). The contemporary concept of
imperialism can be summed up from what Dube says, “‘The
Bible’, ‘The Iliad’, ‘The Odyssey’, ‘The
Aeneid’, modern English and French novels, travel
narratives, anthropological documentation, etc…these texts
authorize imperialism through various values and strategies:
by glorifying military might and conquest, by promoting travel
that characterizes the traveler as authoritatively superior to
foreign lands and their inhabitants, and by constructing
foreign people and spaces in particular forms…inferior,
dangerous, diseased, ungodly, kind, lazy and helpless” (Dube
2004).
In John 4, Jesus takes the emphasis away from
worshipping Him only in the Temple in Jerusalem. Dube cites
this as an example of Jesus using imperialism in a new way.
He states that Jesus, although seeming disinterested in
“taking” anything from this region, commanded his disciples to
reap those things they did not sow. Dube labels this as
imperialism in that Jesus wanted to take people’s affections
away from the gods of their region. Dube says Jesus trades
spatial superiority for “religious/relational superiority” (Dube
2004).
Although Dube points this out as a critic,
perhaps it is a point worth following. If Jesus felt
“religious/relational” superiority was more important than
spatial and institutional superiority, then Salvationists
could imitate Him in restricted-access countries. This would
be the act of the organization dying to self in order to for
Christ to become greater. The following is an African saying
quoted by Dube:
When the white man came to our country he
had the Bible and we had the land. The white man said to us,
‘let us pray.’ After the prayer, the white man had the land
and we had the Bible. –African Saying (Dube 2004)
Another critic, Rachel Tolen,
examined the work of The Salvation Army in Andhra Pradesh,
India within the framework of the overall goals of the British
government, which was in the process of colonizing India at
the time. She states that the government wanted to have a
society in which they could institute industrial principles
and practices in order to bring riches to the British Empire.
The British needed someone to work with those people who lived
in completely opposite manners from the industrial principles
they wished to introduce.
Having developed as a movement in the slums of
England, The Salvation Army focused strongly on the betterment
of individuals in society. Some authors note that the
expansion of The Salvation Army correlated with the expansion
of the industrial revolution and industrial powers. This
revolution “…gave these [industrial] powers the means to
overrun most of the Muslim world, and during the nineteenth
century up to 85% of dar al-Islam came under western (and
therefore nominal Christian) control” (Tolen 1991, 120).
In England, The Salvation Army ministered to
those who were left in poverty during this revolution. The
skills they learned in the slums of England were exported to
other countries. (Tolen 1991, 120) It seems Booth pictured a
disciplined society in every country in which they worked.
Murdoch states that when Booth began the army, “…that military
discipline would be cloaked in religious revivalism frightened
only a few” (Murdoch 1994, 112).
It was common in Victorian England to project
criminality onto the lower classes of people. Some people
even claimed this criminality was hereditary (Tolen 1991,
108). Likewise, in descriptions of the Indian castes, we see
criminality placed on the lower castes. At times, “tribe” was
used interchangeably with “caste.” The use of “tribe” rather
than “caste” gave more of a savage connotation (109).
Tolen pointed out that Salvationists used
physical symbols of their own culture in order to do their
work in Andhra Pradesh, India (Tolen 1991, 119). Dube says we
learn from history that countries which wanted to form an
empire would use certain texts to represent their values.
They would create buildings or symbols and use their culture
to subjugate (Dube 2004).
Tolen states that The Salvation Army did
exactly this in Andhra Pradesh. The people the Army worked
with there were in a caste which had been labeled by many as a
criminal caste. These castes were made up of migrants. This
made it difficult for the government to find them. So when
the government was able, they put entire castes into prisons.
This was the case in Andhra Pradesh. The Salvation Army was
asked to transform the prisoners into law-abiding citizens.
The Salvation Army, by transforming criminal tribesman into
citizens who could productively contribute to industrial
society, was an instrument of the British Empire.
In Tolen’s mind, The Bible was used by the
Salvationists as a text that held absolute authority. In
order to be released from prison, the prisoners had to show
absolute conformity to the Bible (Tolen 1991, 119). But the
author treated the Bible as if it were just a physical book of
the Victorian culture rather than the gospel story which was
used to invite people into the multi-cultured Kingdom of God.
Thus she doesn’t mention the spiritual values of the Bible,
which can be translated into any culture.
It is worth noting, however, that some of the
other physical symbols she records the Salvationists using
were parts of The Salvation Army’s culture from England.
These are not mandatory in the Christian faith for telling the
gospel story. She claimed the “mercy seat,” the term
Salvationists use for “altar,” was the primary tool of
transformation. To her empirical eyes, it was at this seat
someone must kneel in order for God to change them. In order
for the mercy seat to be used effectively, it needed to be
housed in a building which gave the rationale for
Salvationists to build and own property (Tolen 1991, 116). To
her, it was the physical symbolism and not the content of the
Bible or the act of prayer which transformed the tribesman.
But in this she is wrong. It is the power of God which
transformed lives, and in this case, perhaps, the building and
the mercy seat blocked Tolen’s view.
It is possible though that some of the
Salvationists had come to rely too much on their methods and
means. Tolen points out that the Salvation Army Year Book
in the days of Andhra Pradesh stated:
The iconic replication of institutional
spaces furthered the spatiotemporal extension of this
“world-wide uniformity.” The “underlying principles” of the
Salvation Army’s methods were applied uniformly throughout the
world because the fundamental needs of the human heart are so
alike the world over (Tolen 1991, 120).
Tolen claimed Salvationists gave an
“iconic” status to “institutional spaces.” But the word
“iconic” would make the actual buildings sacred to the
Salvationists. William Booth in the early days seemed to be
more in favor of “religious/relational” ministry than spatial
ministry. He was not in favor of buying property. He thought
this took away from the main goal. Instead, he would rather
people rent storefronts than buy buildings. Buying property
meant fundraising, debt and didn’t result in any more
worshipful of a congregation (Murdoch 1994, pg. 90).
If Tolen’s view of God’s mercy was
blocked by the mercy seat and the corps building, then perhaps
others in restricted access countries would have the same
confusion. The Salvation Army, by operating without those
things in restricted-access countries, could give greater
glory to God. It is not the “iconic replication of
institutional spaces” which causes the heart of The Salvation
Army to beat. Rather, the gift of the gospel story to a soul
straining for hope is the impetus of the Army’s heartbeat.
In today’s society, we see some of the same
trends in China and Burma with the use of the uniform. Duncan
Parker is the Director of International Development for the
United Kingdom Territory of The Salvation Army. About working
in Myanmar, Parker states:
The uniform can be misunderstood, and in my
travels there I was told when I should wear it and when I
shouldn’t…when we’re traveling around and certainly when you
were in the villages it was kind of a good idea not to wear
the uniform so that you could engage in conversation without
people feeling we were there as an—I want to say “oppressive,”
it’s not quite the right word, it gives the wrong idea but
that old authoritarian idea. When you are interviewing people
you don’t want them to give you the “right” answers; you want
them to give you the real answers. I certainly found when I
was in Burma [Myanmar] that there was a difference when I
would wear my uniform and when I did not where my uniform, in
terms of the response I got from the community. (Parker 2006)
Tolen makes some valid critiques which can be
helpful to missionaries from the Army. It is ironic; however,
that Tolen cites the ministry in India. For as Commissioner
Mannam Samuel points out in “Work of The Salvation Army in
Andhra Pradesh,” it is there that Frederick
Booth-Tucker modeled contextualization as a Salvationist. He,
along with all his coworkers, changed their dress and began
dressing in a similar style to the poor they served in this
culture. This resulted in masses of poor coming to faith in
Jesus. The entire caste system was challenged by this work
(Samuel 1990, 116). This shows that the Army has much to
learn in the area of contextualization, but that the
foundation for this learning is already built into the fabric
of the organization.
Biblical Principles for Salvationist
Missionaries in Restricted-Access Countries
Ephesians 6:10-18
Warren and Ruth Meyers wrote after
contemplating Ephesians 6, “As you experience Jesus within you
and express Him in your character you wear the armor” (Myers
1994, 40). Neil Williams sees the whole Ephesians 6 passage
about putting on the full armor of God as part of the gospel
story. “Without the right story [one with evil powers] in
mind, we will misinterpret our lives, our world, and our
calling.” He says when we see the gospel as a story, we take
more risks. We realize we are a part of something much bigger
than ourselves. We actively submit to there being something
greater than our own comfort and security (Williams 2005,
63). He adds, “We are in a battle against evil powers. If we
go to war, it is important to know who the real enemy is. The
battle is not fundamentally with other people—although we
usually think it is!” (60). According to Williams, without
spiritual opposition, “courage, challenge, conflict,
perseverance, danger and risk-taking” all disappear (60).
Courage is not found in one’s own strength but
rather “in the Lord.” The Meyers point out that Ephesians
6:12 only briefly mentions evil powers, but its main focus is
on the victorious strength of the Lord (Myers 1994, 40). The
more Salvationists experience and live out Christ’s victory in
their everyday lives, the more others will notice. Perhaps
Salvationists in restricted-access countries, where uniforms
are banned, could benefit from visualizing the full armor of
God as their spiritual “uniform” and thus maintain the
distinction of their mission.
For instance, the metaphoric “armor” of God
relates to God’s righteousness, which destroys guilt; God’s
faithfulness, which protects against Satan’s attacks; God’s
sword, which through scripture protects people’s hearts and
minds; and God’s truth, which defends against lies (Myers
1994, 40). Then there is the offensive weapon of prayer. The
Meyers point out, “Prayer lets us operate behind enemy lines,
softening resistance, confusing strategies, cutting off
supplies and defeating evil purposes. Prayer gives us
constant opportunity to be on active duty in this spiritual
war” (42). If Salvationists use this armor in
restricted-access countries, could it be doubted that their
presence there would be effective for the Kingdom even if the
“normal” operations of The Salvation Army are not allowed?
Even if Salvationist in restricted-access countries are not
allowed to openly evangelize, surely their fiery prayers will
rend the heavens and bring down the love of God!
Williams says the paradox of spiritual warfare
is that it takes dying to win. This is normally the last
thing someone wants to do. But Salvationists—in fact all
Christians—are called to “die every day to our reputation
building, to the stories we make up, to the works of fiction
we create. Centering on God and the gospel takes a painful
death of all our unbelieving desires, fears, and dreams”
(Williams 2005, 63). He goes on to say that Paul calls you to
center yourself on who God is and what He is doing. Paul
claims that this happens through prayer. You become strong in
the Lord and in His power. You appropriate this gospel story
into your own life (Williams 2005, 63-64).
Luke 22:35-38
And he said to them, "When I sent you out
with no purse or bag or sandals, did you lack anything?" They
said, "Nothing." He said to them, "But now, let him who has a
purse take it, and likewise a bag. And let him who has no
sword sell his mantle and buy one. For I tell you that this
scripture must be fulfilled in me, 'And he was reckoned with
transgressors'; for what is written about me has its
fulfilment." And they said, "Look, Lord, here are two
swords." And he said to them, "It is enough." (Luke 22:35-38)
Dr. Rick Love tells the story of how a very
highly educated Muslim thought Christians were going to start
a Jihad in his country. It seems the Muslim had read a
Christian website and through the military terms had come to
believe an actual invasion was imminent (Love 2001, 65). Love
states that the influence of the Crusades has had lasting
negative effects on people’s view of Christians across the
world. The use of military language naturally flows back to
those days. Modern day wars, like those in Bosnia, are seen
as a continuation of the Crusades as well (66).
This passage in Luke can be a disturbing
passage. Jesus, at the Last Supper, told His disciples the
time had come to buy a sword. David Weber addresses this
passage by addressing yet another literary concept. The
concept, called “echoic utterance,” involves a speaker
repeating a concept previously spoken in order to convey a
truth. The speaker may not necessarily agree with the truth
portrayed, but it reminds the other of a previous context. In
this case, according to the author, Jesus was referring to the
ways the disciples thought there would be a time when Jesus
would need to buy a sword in order to accomplish His mission.
Jesus was using this statement to contrast the way He would
give His life rather than take life in order to fulfill His
mission (Weber 1998, 7-8).
It is interesting to note Peter’s response in
the garden of Gethsemane. He cut off a soldier’s ear with a
sword. Could Peter have misunderstood what Jesus was saying
at the table? Likewise, could people in restricted-access
countries—that, unlike Peter, did not spend several years in
very close contact with Jesus and would therefore have very
limited access to His character—misunderstand the metaphors
employed by The Salvation Army?
Many have noted that evangelical militant
terminology today sounds much like the language of the
Crusades. For example, John Gilchrist says, “The Spirit of
militancy that once sparked the military crusades of history
today manifests itself in evangelical spiritual warfare.” He
goes on to say, “If our call is to win Muslims to Christ
rather than defeat the forces of Islam, surely the time has
come for a purely charitable approach” (Gilchrist 1990).
Though not Muslim, China is a restricted-access
country. The Salvation Army is forced by government rules to
take a “purely charitable approach” there. It is amazing that
in mainland China, ninety percent of the development staff has
come to a personal relationship with Jesus. This has occurred
in spite of the fact that Salvationists are not allowed to
operate corps, which is the military term Salvationists use
for churches. In fact, The Salvation Army in China is not
allowed to evangelize unless they are asked about their
religion. Lt. Colonel Alfred Tsang, Officer Commanding Hong
Kong and Macau, encourages Chinese Salvationists to live Godly
lives so that others will ask them for a reason (Tsang 2006).
So how should Christians communicate this
spiritual warfare? Rick Love encourages Christians to:
…emphasize the same things that [the] New
Testament authors emphasized: let’s call our workers to act
like literal soldiers in terms of discipline, sacrifice and
singleness of purpose. Let’s equip our missionaries to fight
against the spiritual forces of darkness and not against
people. And let’s be careful that our strategies don’t
depersonalize the ministry of reconciliation, so that we can
honestly say with Paul, “the love of Christ controls us” (Love
2001, 68).
Revelation
We may find in Revelation an example of the
attitude that will be needed to permeate Salvationist workers
in restricted-access countries. Anthony Castle says,
“Ultimately, the militant imagery in scripture refers to the
unseen reality of spiritual warfare and its apocalyptic
conclusion” (Castle 2006, 11). Throughout the book of
Revelation, we find the apocalyptic story. We never find a
command for Christians to go and engage in physical battle.
We never find a command for Christians to prepare for battle.
Charles Sherlock, when talking about Revelation
5:5-6, which describes a slaughtered lamb which was
victorious, stated, “the past conflict in view is clearly that
of the cross: paradoxically, this decisive victory over Satan
and death was accomplished on the cross. He conquered through
total self-sacrifice” (Sherlock 1993, 366).
Sherlock, commenting on Revelation 12:7-12,
highlights the eleventh verse in that Michael and the angelic
armies conquered the evil armies of Satan through the blood of
the Lamb and the testimony of the Word. This passage does not
say the human armies overcame these forces. It also does not
allude to any physical battle but rather a spiritual one. The
battle is won through what Jesus did on the cross and His
triumph over the grave (Sherlock 1993, 368).
Even in Revelation 16-19, where the lead up to
and battle of Armageddon is described, we find no human
Christian military force. James Johnson in The Holy War
Idea in Western and Islamic Traditions, states the
kings that gather to battle are all encouraged by the
“beast.” The Lord Himself deals directly with these enemies.
The idea that God would fight on behalf of His people is
foreign to people of Islamic faith. Their beliefs center on
the people fighting on behalf of God (Johnson 1997, 38). But
Salvationists believe God fights on behalf of them in an
unseen world and apocalyptically in the seen world as well.
So Salvationists in restricted-access countries must be
careful how they communicate this, as a Muslim may interpret
the Christians to be the ones who are going to fight.
Salvationists must follow the example of Christ and portray an
image of the slaughtered Lamb. In contrast to the bloody wars
of history, the New Testament emphasizes the paradox of
Christians laying down their lives as Christ did in order to
be victorious.
Commissioner Mannam Samuel about those brave
Salvationists in Andhra Pradesh states it was with this
spiritual warfare concept of the New Testament that “groups of
totally dedicated young men and women, in utter abandonment of
comforts and security, flung themselves in battle against
evil, be it spiritual, social or economic. Their captain was
Jesus Christ. Their slogan was ‘The World for Christ’ and
their weapons of war were not material but spiritual” (Samuel
1990, 57). This type of commitment, which was displayed by
the early Salvationists, would continue to be a witness in
restricted-access countries today. The spiritual application
of military discipline seems to be accepted in most places of
the world. In fact John Gilchrist quotes Mohammed from Surah
5.85, “You will find those who are nearest in love to the
believers to be those who say, ‘we are Christians’ because
among them are men devoted to learning and self-denial, and
they are not arrogant” (Gilchrist 1990). Spiritual warfare
can be done whether or not physical expressions of that
warfare are allowed or beneficial in the cultural context.
Conclusion
The Salvation Army has a unique challenge of
overcoming its imperial roots and Crusade-like connotations
while accurately representing the gospel in restricted-access
countries. The core of its identity—that of fighting
spiritual warfare with discipline, courage and unity among the
poor masses—has the potential to make it very effective for
the Kingdom of God in restricted-access countries. Through
spiritual warfare, Salvationists in restricted-access
countries can see the gospel of Jesus impact and change
lives. The focus must be on changing lives rather than
cultures.
While this work was mostly historical and
theological in nature, some future research should be done
with a more practical focus. Existing Salvation Army
ministries in restricted-access countries should be visited,
and the people of the country should be interviewed to see
just how The Salvation Army is received there. Salvationists
in other countries should also be interviewed to see how open
they would be to The Salvation Army operating in
restricted-access countries with different methods of
ministry. This will be an important question to ask in order
to understand whether the international Salvation Army would
be able unite around such goals.
There are valuable elements of military
metaphor which could communicate effectively in
restricted-access countries. There are also elements of
military metaphor which must be abandoned to properly
communicate the message The Salvation Army wishes to bring.
Thus, The Salvation Army needs Salvationist missionaries which
know when and when not to apply the military metaphor. The
Salvation Army needs workers who are aware and sensitive to
their imperial roots and who engage the cultures of other
countries with a respectful attitude. The Salvation Army
needs workers who apply the militaristic spiritual disciplines
to their Christian life daily. The Salvation Army has a main
role to play in the great gospel story. It has been raised up
by God for the purpose of glorifying Him throughout the earth.
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